The Immigrant in America: 1850's to 1920's
A Teacher Research Project on the American Jury
John Roach
San Andreas High School
Hollister, California
Overview
The materials in this unit, though part of the larger research project, "The
American Jury", do not deal directly with the American Jury System. Instead, I
will be providing the teacher with insights into the problems facing immigrants
when entering a new country; namely, the obstacles to assimilation of poverty,
religion and language, as viewed in the reactions of many native born
Americans, (the "Native Americans"); and the bewildering, structured formalism
and legalese of the United States Court System. The structural and semantic
nature of this writing is for the teacher to define and/or rephrase in terms
that will be understandable and of use to his/her particular student population.
Though not exclusively, I will be presenting the Irish Immigrant experience for
two main reasons. First, they were without question the poorest of the groups
to arrive in America between 1846-1880. Thus, they were perceived to be the
cause of economic problems because of their numbers and the fact that he or she
would work at any job and at low wages. Secondly, the Irish were mainly
Catholic; an unfortunate thing to be in Protestant America, given the belief
that the Pope in Rome had plans to move his headquarters to the Mississippi.
We will cover the arrival in America through Castle Gardens~Ellis Island;
running the gauntlet of examinations they were subjected to before being
allowed to enter the country; living conditions in city tenements; attitudes of
the native born toward immigrants in general and some in particular; and the
problems of immigrants in the court system.
As we progress through the sub-headings, I will suggest activities and
involvement that I believe, at least in my experience with students, will aid
them in understanding the immigrant in more than a superficial way and
importantly, seeing the similarities between the old and the new immigrant.
I am presenting a multi-cultural view of people who, for a variety of reasons
were drawn to the promise of a new beginning, and of another group of people,
the descendants of immigrants, who resented their coming.
With the stage so set, I will offer the teacher online addresses of research
colleagues who, in the same cultural context, will present the reader with as
objective a view as the passage of history will allow, of the American Jury. If
used in the general order suggested, the student will hopefully experience a
continuity not always present in the state approved history textbook.
Strategies
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Use of film, video and interactive media for viewing, discussion and student
interaction.
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Immigrant speakers from various ethnic groups.
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Student journal writing.
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Student created family trees.
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Maps tracing the immigration routes; embarkation and arrival ports.
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Simulations of the immigrant experience, sweatshops, assembly-line work.
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Student debates of opposing views of immigration legislation.
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Mock trial taken from court transcripts of Sacco Vanzetti Trial.
I believe that the materials in this unit can best be utilized at the middle
and high school level. However, with modification of the content to grade
levels, or selective presentation of same, elementary school students would
benefit greatly from such involvement. The younger the better! Time frame can
be from two weeks to as much as six weeks, depending on your destination.
THE IMMIGRANT ARRIVES
The arrival ports for immigrants crossing the Atlantic in the 19th and 20th
centuries were numerous. The following is just a partial list of the many entry
points along the Eastern and Southern coasts of America. Baltimore,
Maryland…New Orleans, La…. Boston, Mass… New York City, N.Y…Philadelphia, Pa….
Galveston, Texas… Gulfport, Miss… New Bedford, Mass….Portland,
Maine….Providence, R.I….Savannah, Georgia. Conversely, the main embarkation
ports for immigrants travelling to this country were, Southampton and
Liverpool, Eng…Hamburg and Bremen, Germany….Rotterdam and Amsterdam,
Holland….Havre and Marseilles, France…. and Genoa and Naples, Italy. Though it
was through Irish ports that the Irish began their long journey to the United
States, it was the "Liverpool Funnel", that impressed on the Irish psyche the
national scope of their collective fates, as Irishmen and women from all of
Irelands townships met in this English port facing west toward America.
Activity
Handout outline maps of Europe and the United States. Fill in locations of
emigration and immigration ports listed above. Trace routes from Europe to U.S.
Estimate how many miles to each location and length of journey in time.
Research major ethnic groups port/s of departure. Color Code each journey line
crossing the Atlantic according to ethnic group.
Between the years 1846-1925, some 30-32 million Europeans immigrated to the
U.S. The reasons for such a hazardous and uncertain endeavor varied according
to time and country. In the first third of the 19th Century, the Industrial
Revolution was in full swing. With an exponential increase in production of
goods, handmade items became too expensive and craftsmen, artists and laborers
suffered financially. Farmlands were converted to industrial use, pushing
agricultural workers into cities to find work.
Activity
Simulate assembly line production of pinwheels. Break class into groups of 4-6
assembly workers. Go through dry run of production until familiar with process.
Determine pay for each completed pinwheel. Team with most money wins the
production prize, whatever you decide it will be. Post simulation should
discuss the main disadvantage of piecework (the worker can only go so
fast…burnout rate very high!) Also, for statistics on total populations by
year; ethnic population percentages, free versus slave populations, go to
infoplease.com for information.
The rise in nationalism, civil war and ethnic discrimination in the 19th
century caused serious dislocation for millions, increasing the lure of a new
country possessing limitless lands and perceived opportunities. Of all the
immigrants arriving in America, the Irish stood out as the poorest of all. In
Ireland, a persistent potato blight destroyed the staple crop of the central
and southern parts of the island, causing widespread famine. In the years
1845-1851, four crop failures killed between two and three and a half million
people. In these years, one million Irish citizens left Ireland, the vast
majority forever. In the following years many hundreds of thousands more left
Ireland for America.
Activity
Show the film "The Great Hunger", for a first rate and first hand treatment of
a national tragedy. Though we will not be discussing it here, a good online
resource for the difficulties of travel, disease and hardship, is the
following: .www.nde.state.ne.us.ssirish unit. Or, type in the title of the
study, "Emigration: Departure, Crossing and Arrival." This is an excellent,
albeit painful account of the Irish immigrants' temporary landing in Liverpool,
England, before continuing the journey across the Atlantic…the horrible
conditions aboard what were named "Coffin Ships," and their final arrival,
diseased and dying, at New Brunswick and Gross Island, Canada.
As the ships entered New York Harbor and dropped anchor, inspectors would board
the vessel to conduct examination of first and second class passengers. Upon
successful completion of these examinations, the fortunate travelers would be
given paper authentication of their clear status and removed to boats for the
short trip to land and independence. Those in steerage were taken to Castle
Gardens (1855-1890) or Ellis Island (1892-1924) for an indeterminate stay,
depending on the results of medical examinations and further questioning
relating to mental conditions, solvency and ability to work. If either the
medical exam, or the subsequent series of questions, including the ability to
read and write were suspect, the immigrants' shoulder was marked with chalk.
This meant that a further examination would be conducted, increasing the
possibility of deportation. These delays in disposition could take days, or
even weeks to resolve. The passenger designations of first class, second class
and so-on indicated the deck level they were assigned and the level of service,
food and general attention given. At the bottom of the list was steerage, a
deck level deep in the ships' hold that lacked cabin accommodations. Many
people were packed together in large, open areas.
Activity
The Interact Company has an excellent simulation entitled "Gateway", which is
an outstanding activity for students. It takes them through the entire
immigrant screening process. The simulation number is 2064.... Cost is
$38.00....Call 1-800-359-0961, Ext. 100. Or... a class designed role-playing of
the process is another way to stimulate interest. Write personal histories on
each student immigrant. Names, occupations, ages, ethnic origins, etc. Medical
exam results can be handed out randomly from box by doctor…some make it, some
don't! Exam results from other inspectors questioning immigrants can use same
method. Check' "Extract of Mental Examination of Immigrants at Ellis Island."
By E.H. Mullan, for an in-depth treatment of immigrant line inspection.
LIFE IN THE TENEMENTS
Given the magnitude of the famine in Ireland and the deplorable condition of
the Irish immigrant arriving in America, it is rather amazing that so many
actually made it through the medical examination, However, there is no
disputing the numbers that packed the urban areas all along the East Coast of
America. Sadly, their travail were not over.
Activity
This would be a good time to begin student journals. First impressions of
America after passing through the examinations to the coastal cities and
beyond. Begin family profiles, names, relationships, illnesses, descriptions of
the "big city", the tenements and crowded living quarters, etc. If immigrant
histories have been written in the previous activity above, use them here.
Students should take on the roles of these family members and write impressions
of urban/rural America as they believe the immigrant would view it. Also, log
onto "Tenement Museum Eds' Treasure Zone: Site Descriptions", for an
archeological view of a New York City tenement.
For the Irish, the choice seemed clear enough. They no longer had faith in the
land to sustain them, and their long and bitter relationship with England
taught them that the only way to live within the law was to become the law,
though this last one was a bit in the future as yet. So the major cities became
their home.
But tenement life was brutal. Single rooms sheltered entire families. In the
Irish wards as many as twelve people lived in one or two rooms.
As the tenements filled, wooden shacks in the rear of storied buildings were
rented for four to five dollars a month, almost one weeks pay. For those
desperate enough, damp basements served as living space. In these dark and
moist caves rats thrived and spread disease. In New York City, 80% of all
infants born to Irish families died of typhoid fever, cholera, pneumonia and
Tuberculosis.
Activity
Jacob Riis was a contemporary observer of immigrant life in New York City
around the 1880's. He was a strong critic of living conditions in the New York
City tenement districts. His book, "How The Other Half Lives", describes in
great detail the squalor and dangers of tenement life. Log onto his name and
book title for a complete display of this writing. Also, check out the video,
"Immigrants and Missionaries", for more on living conditions. Journals should
be written in, describing the writers' feelings about living in such
conditions.. seeing loved ones die, etc. See additional videos at the end of
this unit that deal with this aspect of life in the city tenements.
Arriving in poverty and largely illiterate, the Irish took the lowliest jobs
without complaint, from working on the construction and maintenance of sewer
systems, the building of railroads and canals, laboring on the docks, or any
other job that was physically demanding and dangerous, the Irishman pursued the
day to day task of survival, twelve to fourteen hours a day, at fifty to
seventy-five cents a day.
Irish women as well, sought out whatever work they could. Unlike Irish men,
toward whom the signs "No Irish Need Apply", were aimed, Irish women were
prized as domestic servants by affluent Protestant families. The job was
secure, though long on hours and short on pay. Factory work, on the other hand,
was dangerous, as well as low-paying and long. Piece-work limited what a girl
could make.
For example, a saleswoman would make between two and four dollars and fifty
cents a week. However, fines for "lost time" could eat up as much as 35-40% of
her weekly pay. In some stores the supervisor and time-keeper would split the
fines between them, in one case to the amount of three thousand dollars in a
year. Cash girls made an average of a dollar seventy-five weekly. Working a
fourteen to sixteen hour day was not uncommon. Part of their wages were spent
on aprons, a common piece of clothing for this particular job. If raises were
asked for, the result could be dismissal.
Activity
Research consumer prices between the years 1850 and 1925. A copy of the Sears
Roebuck Catalogue, circa 1900 would give a rough enough estimate of prices.
Smaller replicas of the catalogue are available. Then compare prices with
income for an idea of the difficulties faced by the immigrant.
Also, Jacob Riis' "How The Other Half Lives," has two sections on immigrant
jobs…"Bohemian Cigar Makers" and "The Working Girls of New York City."
Check "Tenement Factories" and a variety of topics under the heading "Women,
Child Labor."
Among the non-English speaking immigrants, Central Europeans, in particular
Czechs, were the cigar makers. Landlords would own up to a dozen tenements
close to his shop. High rents, often coupled with a $5.00 deposit or "key
money," were demanded of the immigrant. The landlord would hand-out tobacco
weekly for the making of cigars. Cigar making was a seven day a week
enterprise, with as many family members as possible being involved. The going
rate per 1,000 cigars was $3.75. A good weekly production rate was 3,000
cigars. Though many of these "Bohemian " immigrants had marketable trades and
skills, their lack of proficiency in speaking English made it almost impossible
to practice them. However, there were exceptions. Samuel Gompers accompanied
his family from London, England to the United States in 1863. He became a maker
of cigars. In 1874, he helped create Local 144 of the Cigar Makers'
International Union. In 1881, he was one of the chief founders of the
Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of the United States and
Canada. In 1886, he was elected president of the newly created AFL. He remained
in this position until his death in 1895.
Activity
Group students into "families," preferably boys and girls, to make cigars. Log
on to "Cigar Making," for basic information regarding how to make them. Corn
husks, broad leaves, other appropriate vegetation would serve as tobacco for
the simulation. After a practice session on how to make them, begin a class
competition between the families. Determine whatever prize deemed appropriate.
Of course, since your competition will run perhaps one hour, you will have to
figure the number of cigars made in that time, times sixteen, times seven days
to establish the winner, and to get a feel for the tremendous amount of time
and work involved for the amount earned.
NATIVISM AND IMMIGRATION
While there was a steady stream of anti-immigration writings in the first third
of the 1800's, it wasn't until the increase of immigrants in the 1840's that
the Nativist Movement turned to the political arena to legitimize their
cultural bias through legislation. With the creation of the American Republican
Party, the Nativist Movement was able to influence the outcome of the 1844
elections in New York City, and defeat the Democratic Party. Though it did not
survive for long as a party, its entry into politics heralded the rise of the
so-called "Know-Nothings," a political movement of the 1850's.
By this time, a massive influx of immigrants, in particular the Irish, had
alarmed Protestant America to the extent that impressive victories were
realized by the Know-Nothings in 1854. In the 1856 Presidential Election, the
Know-Nothings, now the American Party, won 21% of the popular vote and eight
electoral votes.
Their political platform included limits on immigration, office-holding
restricted to native-born Americans and a twenty one year waiting period, prior
to becoming a naturalized citizen and being able to vote. Despite their seeming
political strength and a string of election victories, the Know-Nothings were
virtually impotent by the election of 1860. However, anti-religious sentiment
and hostility towards immigration has not likewise disappeared…only the names
have changed!
Activity
Check the following Nativist writers on-line for insights into the then
prevalent view regarding racial inferiority, et al....Anna Ella Carroll, Dale
T. Knobel, and Ruth Hughes' discussion of the writing entitled "The Awful
Disclosures of Maria Monk." For a general source of anti-Catholic writings, go
on-line to USF: library.spc coll.RomanCatholicChurch many of which are
contemporary.
There are several writings, pro and con immigration, that could highlight in
detail the ideas and philosophies of each position. They are…"Restriction of
Immigration" by Francis Walker, 1896, and "The Nordish Crisis" by Richard
McCulloch, 1900's, both con immigration…. and "Can We Still Afford to be a
National of Immigrations?" by David Kennedy (contemporary), pro immigration.
A good project for library, computer or back copies of newspapers, would be to
research todays' Nativist groups, and their writings, Identify their names,
estimated numbers, philosophies (cultural, economic, political), propaganda
methods, political strength. Research pro immigrant writings in same manner.
Set-up a debate between student teams…(no racial slurs, profanity, etc., of
course) or…arrange for debate or discussion between opposing opinions from
community. (local politicians, civic leaders, etc.) Invite student relatives
who immigrated to America to speak to your class about their experiences and
answer student developed questions.
IMMIGRANTS IN THE U.S. COURTS
Though the immigrant was daily facing the hostility and discrimination of the
"native-born", his inability to speak English proved to be a serious deficit
within the context of the American Court System. The most immediate difficulty
was in the choosing of an interpreter of the immigrants' spoken words, when
appearing as complainant or defendant. This problem became especially
significant during the time period 1890-1910, with the peak migration of
Southern and Eastern Europeans into America. Too often, the interpreter was
dangerously incompetent. Even with an impartial and intelligent judge as the
hearer of fact, his assessment of the case in question relied on the
reliability and accuracy of the interpreters' translation of verbal testimony
in court. Unfortunately, there was little uniformity in the manner of
interpreter selection or pay…and too many interpreters, whether employed in
other work or not, were practically dependent for support on their court
employment.
To augment this income, it was common for interpreters to form a symbiotic
relationship with a "shyster lawyer." The interpreter would act as a "runner"
for this lawyer, to whom he referred immigrants with legal problems. The fees
would then be split by some agreed upon ratio. Not infrequently, the
interpreter would go to both parties in a case and help them "work up" their
cases, receiving fees from both and promising to "look out for" both when the
case came to court. As for the lawyers who visited the courts and jails, they
were usually of the lowest caliber in honesty and ability. To compound the
immigrants' difficulty in court, when juries were used they were mainly
comprised of native born citizens, many of whom reflected the widespread bias
against foreigners. At this time women and blacks were excluded from jury duty.
Activity
If you have bilingual students in your class (and who in the profession does
not?), it would be interesting to set-up a situation in the classroom, similar
to the one just described. To avoid obvious pitfalls, a carefully crafted
script would avoid any possible student embarrassment. The goal of course,
would be to show the discrepancy between the facts of the case and the
interpretation of the facts for presentation to the hearer of fact, whether
judge or jury. Such a court simulation would be comprised of judge, jury,
lawyers, witnesses and interpreter. The hearer of fact should be kept in the
dark regarding the actual facts of the case and hear only the interpreters
translation of verbal evidence. The outcome could be interesting and would
certainly highlight the seriousness of the immigrants' position in the court
system.
Between the years 1890-1925, there was a growing fear in American of Communists
and Anarchists. This coincided with a massive increase in immigration from
Eastern and Southern Europe. Their physical appearance and strange sounding
languages differed markedly from the migrants of an earlier time. They were
looked upon with suspicion and linked with what many thought of as a present
danger to America.
The Communist Revolution had ended the Czarist Dynasty and assumed power in
Russia in 1918. In the United States, labor violence, general unrest, and some
isolated bombings, created a national paranoia that became known as the "Red
Scare." In response, the newly elected Attorney General, A. Mitchell Palmer,
requested funding to combat what he said was a Communist attempt to overthrow
the government. The result was that over 10,000 people throughout the country
were arrested. Due process rights were not considered in many of the arrests.
Those most targeted for arrest were members of Communist organizations, I.W.W.,
labor unions and, coincidentally, Eastern and Southern immigrants.
Activity
Log on to "Sacco and Vanzetti" + trial records. Then click on the case of Sacco
and Vanzetti, 27.03. This is a very good court transcript and accompanying
discussion of the case and characters. A mock trial could be conducted with
students assuming the roles…judge, lawyers, witnesses and jury members. They
could then decide, on the evidence presented, if Sacco and Vanzetti were guilty
as charged. The concept of reasonable doubt and due process should be studied
prior to the trial.
Other interesting materials are...."Interview-Helen Papanikolas,"type in
"Immigrants and Anarchists" to get there."The Last Days Remembered," spoken by
Aldino Felicani, who was the publisher of the Anarchist paper "Contracorrente."
(this is sound, if you have the system for it).
I have not included goals in the conventional form....one through fifteen. I
believe that you will come up with your own goals, arrived at through personal
assessment and the composition of your classes. Yet, I do have goals related to
this enterprise. To highlight in the several sections of this unit, the
difficulties encountered when people decide, for various reasons to leave their
native land and determine to create a new life for themselves and their
families. More than this, I hope this unit serves as a conduit or window if you
will, to the research conducted by my colleagues. They will deal with the pros
and cons of the jury system and speak specifically of court cases from the
times written about here. Ethnicity? Religion? Economics? To what degree were
they factors considered in the American system of justice? To what degree do
these factors prevail today?
Immigration continues to be a focus and a concern in our time. The same
positions, dramatically so, are being taken today, pro and con, as people
migrate to this land, legally and illegally. These are relevant questions for
our students to study, research, role-play, and share. Knowing my teaching
colleagues, they will provide more than enough materials and activities to aid
in this quest for understanding.
Resources: Books On the Immigrant Experience
The Immigrant Woman in North America
Immigrant Women in the United States
The Jewish Woman, 1900-1985
Anarchist Writers on the Net
The Irish Famine, Peter Gray
The Great Hunger, Cecil Woodham-Smith
Call It Sleep by H. Roth
No, No Boy by J. Okada
American Is In the Heart by C. Bulosan
Going to America, Terry Coleman
The Joy Luck Club by Tan
The Irish-Americans: The Rise to Money and Power, Andrew Greeley
The Rather Difficult Case of Mr. Kaplan by Leo Rosten
Learning My Fathers' Language by Lorraine Duggen
Émigré' by W.S. Merwin
Prospective Immigrant, Please Note by Adrienne Rich
Erin's Daughters in America, Hasia Diner
In a Room and a Half by Joseph Brodsky
My Father Sits in the Dark by J. Weidman
Ourselves Alone, Janet Nolan
An Ugly Little Secret: Anti-Catholicism in North America, Andrew Greeley
The Irish-American Fiction; 1760 to 1980's, Charles Fanning
Good Boys and Dead Girls and Other Essays, Mary Gordon
A Drinking Life: A Memoir, Pete Hamill
Cabbage and Bones: An Anthology of Fiction by Irish-American Women, Caledonia
Kearns, editor
Memoirs of a Catholic Girlhood, Mary McCarthy
Asian Americans and Congress; A documentary History, Hyung-Chan Kim
The Black Diaspora; Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside Africa,
Ronald Segal
Branching Out; German-Jewish Immigration to the United States 1820-1914,
Avraham Barkai
Cartographies of Diaspora; Contesting Identities (Gender,Racism, Ethnicity
Series) Avtar Brah
Chinese Immigrants and American Law; Charles McCain
Ellis Island; Georges Perec
Emigrants and Exiles; Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America: Kerby A.
Miller
First Generation: In the Words of Twentieth-Century American Immigrants: June
Namias
Fitting in: Anilu Bernardo
Foreign and Female: Immigrant Women in America, 1840-1930.: Doris Weatherford
Home Was the Land of Morning Calm: A Saga of a Korean-American Family: K.
Connie Kang
The Huddled Masses: The Immigrant in American Society; 1880-192l: Alan M. Kraut
Resources: Video
[Through Media Resource Center, Moffet Library, U.C. Berkeley....l-510-642-8197]
Lost, lost, lost....Jonas Mekas
Little Italy
Journey to America
The Journey
Island of Hope, island of tears
Irish Americans
Up From City Streets
Success
The Great Hunger
All Across America
In Heaven There is no Beer
The Huddled Masses
Resources: Movies
I Remember Mama
A Tree Grows in Brooklyn
Far and Away
The Immigrant
The Joy Luck Club